Rationale behind the item: Crimson silk was one of the most prized luxury textiles in Elizabethan society.

ABOVE: This length of satin looked surprisingly raspberry under the lighting in the event hall

This item was dyed specifically for use in making an Elizabethan cushion cover. Although it is a bit smaller than typical surviving cushions (long cushions run to 40" long and 20" high), an undyed satin scarf (36"x36", 19 mm) was a convenient and inexpensive material to use. I planned the fabric for either the ground for embroidered appliqué (slips) or the backing material for the same cushion (projected size 35"x20"). I am so pleased by the color, however, that I now intend to save this fabric for something more opulent. The household inventory of Sir Henry Unton (1595) lists three red satin long cushions "laide with golde lace" and the Hardwick Hall collection includes crimson cushions with appliqué.

The Process:

Step 1: Prepare fabric for dyeing: The fabric was first weighed to determine the amount of mordant and dye required. It was then washed, rinsed, and left to soak at least 1 hour to relax the fibers prior to mordanting.

Step 2: Prepare mordant & apply to fabric: I dissolved in hot water alum equal to ¼ the fabric weight. This solution was then added to a pot of clean water and stirred. The wet fabric was transferred to mordant solution, and stirred well. It remained in the mordant overnight (10-12 hours), and occasionally stirred. I also checked several times to make sure it remained entirely submerged. After rinsing and disposing of the spent mordant solution, the fabric was transferred to the dyepot. Note: it is faster to follow a 'hot mordanting' process, heat can cause damage to silk.

 

ABOVE: unground and ground cochineal. Cochineal is an insect native to the Americas that infests cacti. It began to replace kermes (which infests Mediterranean oak trees) in the 1520s because of its higher concentration of colorants.

Step 3: Extract the dye: I weighed out 4 oz cochineal and ground it to a powder using mortar & pestle. (This might equal as much as 8 oz kermes.) Cochineal was then placed in pot, covered with several inches of water, and brought to a simmer. After about ½ hour, I strained the dye into a pot partially filled with clear water, added more water to the pot with the cochineal, and repeated the process. Once I'd finished extracting the dye, I strained the solution twice through a sieve covered with a coffee filter to remove as much of the bugs as possible. Additional clear water was then added to fill the stockpot to about 2" from the brim.

Step 4: Dye the fabric: The cloth was added to the pot & stirred. The temperature was slowly raised and maintained at about 150 F (any higher and the silk can lose its luster). I stirred & frequently lifted the fabric from pot to loosen folds & creases that can trap colorant & cause uneven dyeing. After about 45 minutes I let the fabric cool, then rinsed it in luke-warm water. It was then washed with Ph neutral soap, rinsed again, hung up to dry & later ironed.

ABOVE: 16th Century woodcut illustration of a dyer at work

Historical Questions:

· Is this the right type of fabric? Yes & no. Velvets, satin, silk damask and taffeta were frequently used for 'high end' cushion covers. The ground & backing fabrics do not always match; one example at the V&A has a black velvet ground and green damask back. I don't know if this 19 mm fabric is an equal weight to period satins, but it's the heaviest I'm likely to get because of cost. Also note that this fabric is actually charmeuse, a modern weave with a crepe back and a satin face.

· Would this fabric come from a professional shop, or be done at home? A shop. While gentrywomen might dye wool at home, expensive materials such as silk satin were almost certainly dyed by professionals, especially when using a costly dye such as cochineal (or kermes before it). Robinson (1969) also indicates that English dyers weren't known for 'high art' dyeing, relying instead on imports from the Continent.

· Did you follow a specific period recipe? Yes & no. Although I keep period guides nearby when I work, no recipe can be followed with exactitude due to the fluctuating chemical composition of natural dyestuffs. One of the recipes in the Plictho makes note of this, listing the different regional sources of kermes and Polish cochineal and appropriate quantity adjustments to make. Additionally, American cochineal contains more dye than European equivalents, making a simple 1 to 1 substitution inaccurate. Many recipes also instruct returning the item to the pot however many times the dyer thinks is needed-dyeing is and was an inherently empirical art form, once the basic chemical principles were learned.

· Other 'non period' items used? I used a gas stovetop as my heat source, and stainless steel pots. A 16th C dyer would have used a large metal cauldron set on top of a wood or coal-fired stove (see illustrations). It's debatable whether or not a length of satin in this size would have been piece dyed. Most silks were yarn dyed and then woven, but lightweight silks such as sarcenet and some satins were occasionally piece dyed, for example for veils as seen in the Plictho.

Sources Consulted, Partially Annotated

Brunello, Franco (1973). The Art of Dyeing in the History of Mankind. English translation by Pheonix Dyeworks, Cleveland, Ohio.
-An excellent historical overview.

Digby, George Winfield (1963). Elizabethan Embroidery. London: Faber & Faber.

Lee, Raymond L. (1951). "American cochineal in European commerce, 1526-1625." Journal of Modern History, 23(3), 205-224.

Levey, Santina M.(1998). Elizabethan Treasures: The Hardwick Hall Textiles. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
-Fabulously illustrated in color.

Levey, Santina M. and Peter Thornton (2001). Of Household Stuff: the 1601 Inventories of Bess of Hardwick. London: The National Trust.
-Contains two scholarly articles as well as transcripts of the inventories.

Liles, JN (1990). The Art and Craft of Natural Dyeing: Traditional Recipes for Modern Use. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
-An excellent guide with highly specific instructions including temperatures and simmer times. But note that Liles is mostly concerned with 18th Century reenactment, and thus not all of his recipes are accurate for our period.

Nevinson, J.L. (1938). Catalogue of English Domestic Embroidery of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. London: Victoria & Albert Museum.
-Black & white illustrations only, but item descriptions include a listing of colors used.

Philip, William (1596). A Booke of Secrets. London: Adam Islip for Edward White.
-This is a 16th C collection of dye recipes and instructions for stain removal translated from an earlier Dutch work. Instructions are less detailed than those in the Plictho.

Robinson, Stuart (1969). A History of Dyed Textiles. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Rosetti, Gioanventura (1548) The Plictho of Gioanventura Rosetti: Instructions in the Art of the Dyers which Teaches the Dyeing of Woolen Cloths, Linens, Cottons, and Silk by the Great Art as Well as by the Common. Reprint by S. M. Edelstein and HC Borghettym, trans. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969.

-The most important published period source available in modern English. Contains scholarly introduction, the recipes, and explanatory footnotes. Separate section on dyeing silk. The editors note these recipes reflect dye practices in Venice. Interestingly, silk dyers were exempted there from guild regulations, being considered independent artists.

The inventorie…of the honourable Sir Henrie Unton, Knight, Ambassator in Fraunce, late deceased there… (1595). Transcript available at http://www.mape.org.uk/activities/unton/inventories.htm. The cushions referenced are listed in the parlor of his house at Wadley.

Victoria & Albert Museum online database of images, http://www.vam.ac.uk. Last accessed 4/2004.

Whitney, Geffrey (1586). A Choice of Emblemes, and Other Devises… Leyden: In the house of Christopher Plantyn, by Francis Raphelengius. Available in digital facsimile at http://emblem.libraries.psu.edu/.
-The source for the woodcut illustration of a dyer at work. The woodcut itself probably predates Whitney's book.